Introduction
The World Bank defines corruption as the exploitation of entrusted power for personal gain, affecting both men and women, though with distinct consequences. Research demonstrates that women are disproportionately impacted by corruption, particularly in service delivery. It is essential to understand the concept of gender to fully comprehend the negative effects of corruption on women. Unlike sex, which refers to biological traits, gender encompasses socially constructed characteristics influenced by societal position, roles, and opportunities associated with being male or female.
Despite the nearly equal gender distribution worldwide, women, particularly from the global South, women, still constitute a marginalised group due to social, cultural, economic, and political discrimination. Recognising the connection between corruption and gender inequality, attention in the anti-corruption field is now shifting to examining the impact of corruption on marginalised groups such as women, and their role in curbing the scourge. This blog sheds light on the adverse impact of corruption on women in Zimbabwe, specifically with regard to accessing public services, notably water.
Corruption at the heart of public service delivery
The provision of quality public services is critical for sustainable development and the protection of human rights. However, the widespread and systemic corruption in Zimbabwe has resulted in the state neglecting its obligation to respect, protect, and fulfill social and economic rights as outlined in various human rights frameworks to which the country is a party, including its domestic provisions enshrined in its constitution, Constitution of Zimbabwe, Amendment (No.20) Act, 2013. The country's low ranking on corruption indices is indicative of the issue's magnitude. In 2020, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) ranked Zimbabwe as the 157th most corrupt nation, with a score of 24 out of 100.
Section 77(a) of the constitution provides for the right to safe, clean, and potable water for all, however, at least two million people in Zimbabwe lack access to clean and safe water. Granted, the realisation of this right, as with many other social and economic rights is based on the availability of resources. However, I am of the view that corruption in the country’s public sector has to a large extent negatively impacted the water governance sector, at both the national and local levels. For instance, in 2014, funds intended for rehabilitating water infrastructure were diverted to purchase luxury cars for senior public officials. This diversion has contributed to many urban residents going without running water for months or even years, leading to the emergence of "water poverty" and disproportionately affecting marginalized groups, such as women and girls.
It is also important to note that while the shortage of running water has severe consequences for women in most countries, women are not a monolithic group, and the impact of water scarcity varies among different classes of women. In the Global South, the responsibility of ensuring access to water for the family is a gendered duty that falls mainly on women and young girls. According to the Water Integrity Network (2016), women in Africa bear at least 90 percent of the responsibility for gathering water and firewood for domestic use. This group bears the brunt of seeking alternative sources of water and interacting with service providers in the water sector, thus making them more susceptible to corruption.
Impact of corruption on women
Corruption has the effect of increasing the cost of accessing quality and affordable public services, thereby infringing on other fundamental rights, especially for marginalized women and girls. These include reinforcing inequalities, susceptibility to sextortion and access to health.
Reinforcing inequality: The Constitution of Zimbabwe recognizes the importance of gender equality by stating that women and men are entitled to equal opportunities in political, economic, cultural, and social spheres (section 56(2)). Unfortunately, the lack of quality public service delivery such as potable running water exacerbates the inequality gap - not only between women and men but also between different classes of women. Wealthier households can afford to install alternative sources of water, such as boreholes and water tanks, within their homes. However, grassroots women who rely on community water points, which are often unsafe and distant, are not as fortunate. They must travel long distances to fetch water, which is time-consuming and denies them the opportunity to engage in social, economic, and political activities, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and inequality.
Sextortion: The incidence of sextortion in Zimbabwe is increasing as women seek public services. A study conducted by Transparency International Zimbabwe in 2019 revealed that 57% of participants had been coerced into offering sexual favors as a form of bribery to access public services. Essential services, such as the water sector has not been spared either. Women are often coerced to offer sexual acts in exchange for access to water by informal water barons who include drivers and volunteers of water bowsers. Unfortunately, social, cultural, and legal barriers often prevent victims from obtaining justice. I previously discussed some of these obstacles in a blog I wrote for Transparency International's Voices of Transparency.
The right to health: The impact of the quality of water, whether from the State or alternative sources, directly affects various aspects of women's lives. The cross-cutting nature of corruption in the water sector has dire consequences for women, affecting other areas such as food security and health. This has proven to be the case in Zimbabwe. Due to the erratic water supplies, the country has been experiencing a lot of water borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid, which are believed to be caused by contaminated water from unprotected sources. Women bear a double burden in such situations, as they are often the primary caregivers, attending to the sick and interacting with public officials in health institutions whose state has also been affected by corruption. Additionally, studies have shown that carrying water over long distances can also negatively impact on the health of women and young girls as they risk developing “musculoskeletal disorders”, which compromises their sexual and reproductive rights.
Conclusion
To sum up, the interconnectivity between the lack of access to safe and clean water and the violation of other human rights, such as gender equality, access to justice, and health, has severe consequences that cannot be disregarded. This negatively affects Zimbabwe's progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG 3, (good health and well-being for all), SDG 5 (gender equality and empowerment for women and girls) and SDG 16 (access to justice for all and the building of effective, accountable and inclusive institutions). Eradicating corruption is crucial to achieving these goals, and women should be included in anti-corruption initiatives, from grassroots advocacy to policy-making. The disproportionate impact of corruption on women in accessing quality public services makes a strong case for having more women in parliament to enact policies that can address corruption effectively. As Jha and Sarangi (2015) argued in their blog, policies made by women in parliament could be different from those made by men, and women policymakers could be the potential channel to combat corruption, as they bear the heaviest burden of its consequences.
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